Gender, inclusion and equality

In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities -—
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—-. In 2020, progress in genderGender refers to the roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society at a given time considers appropriate for women and men. In addition to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, gender also refers to the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes. They are context/ time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. -—
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—- equality has also been offset by the COVID-19Infectious disease caused by the strain of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 discovered in December 2019. Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses which may cause illness in animals or humans. In humans, several coronaviruses are known to cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). The most recently discovered coronavirus causes a coronavirus disease called COVID-19. pandemic which has posed threats to the health, safety and livelihoods of women and men and has exacerbated disparities rooted in societal structures.

Gender inequality can manifest itself in many ways. Composite indicators can bring together several aspects of inequality. GIIGender Inequality Index (GII) measures gender inequalities in three aspects of human development: reproductive health, measured by maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates; empowerment, measured by proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females and proportion of adult females and males aged 25 years and older with at least some secondary education; and economic status, expressed as labor market participation and measured by labor force participation rate of female and male populations aged 15 years and older -—
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—-. , for instance, looks at educational achievement, economic and political participation and reproductive health. The higher the value, the more there are disparities between women and men. According to -—
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—- gender inequality leads to loss of human development.

In 2019, GII ranked eleven SIDSsmall island developing States (SIDS) were recognized as a distinct group of developing countries at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
More information on UNCTAD official page. better than the world average (see figure 1). In total, 12 SIDS, representing all SIDS for which GII is available, are above LDCs’Least developed countries (LDCs) are low-income countries confronting severe structural impediments to sustainable development. They are highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks and have low levels of human assets -—
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—-. average. Almost all SIDS that have data for several reference years have seen a reduction in gender inequalities recently.

Figure 1. Gender inequality in SIDS, 2019

(GII index)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: The GII ranges from 0, where women and men fare equally, to 1, reflecting maximum inequality between women and men in all dimensions.

Towards greater equality in the eyes of the law

The Women, Business and the Law IndexWomen, Business and the Law index measures global progress toward gender equality in the law in 190 economies annually. Overall scores are calculated by taking the average score of each of the eight areas: Mobility, workplace, pay, marriage, parenthood, entrepreneurship, assets and pension. 100 represents the highest possible score for gender equality in the law. -—
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—- studies the impact of laws and regulations on women’s economic opportunities -—
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—-. In 2019, 12 SIDS exceeded the global average score of 75.2. The top-3 countries – Mauritius, Sao Tome and Principe, and Cabo Verde – are all located in the Indian and Atlantic Ocean. Sao Tome and Principe was also among ten economies globally that improved the most from 2017. This is thanks to the adoption of a new labour code brought into compliance with international standards, prohibiting, for instance, the dismissal of pregnant women.

Since 2000, all SIDS for which the index exists have improved the legal environment for women’s economic empowerment. Between 2017 and 2019, Fiji, for instance, introduced parenthood reforms, accepting paid leave for fathers for the first time and increasing maternity leave from 84 to 98 days. Grenada made changes to allow women to apply for a passport without additional documentation, i.e., on the same basis as men. Timor-Leste started counting periods of absence due to childcare towards pension entitlements, and Barbados enacted legislation to improve protection against sexual harassment.

Figure 2. SIDS ranked by the Women, Business and the Law Index, 2019

(Index)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Inequalities persist in the labour markets

Women are more likely to be unemployed than men in SIDS, with average unemployment of 11 per cent compared to 8 per cent for men. Women’s labour force participation is also significantly lower in SIDS, on average 53 per cent, compared to 72 per cent for men. This is clearly illustrated in figure 3. The gap between male and female labour force participation is largest in Maldives, Fiji, and Sao Tome and Principe, and for unemployment rates in Marshall Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, and Tuvalu.

Figure 3. Labour force participation and unemployment rates by sex

(Percentage)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Latest annual data on labour force participation and unemployment rates for each country. For more details on the reference years, please refer to Income, poverty and employment, figures 1 and 2.

Average hourly earningsAverage hourly earnings measure the gross remuneration in cash and in kind paid to employees, as a rule at regular intervals, for time worked or work done together with remuneration for time not worked, such as annual vacation, other type of paid leave or holidays. Earnings exclude employers' contributions in respect of their employees paid to social security and pension schemes and also the benefits received by employees under these schemes. Earnings also exclude severance and termination pay. Statistics on average hourly earnings by sex are the basis for the calculation of the gender pay gap. -—
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—- statistics are available for some SIDS only. In Timor-Leste (data for 2013), Tonga (2018) and Maldives (2016) women were paid about 80 per cent of men’s hourly earnings. In Mauritius, women’s earnings were 88 per cent of men’s earnings in 2019. -—
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The gender wage gap varies significantly by occupation and country. For instance, in Cabo Verde (data for 2015) and Samoa (2017), female professionals earned about 60 per cent of their male colleagues’ earnings. Women’s hourly earnings exceeded men’s earnings in clerical and support jobs in Maldives, Timor-Leste and Tonga, but women earned less than men in these occupations in Mauritius (94 per cent) and Samoa (80 per cent). Female managers’ compared to male managers' earnings ranged from 40 per cent in Tonga and Maldives to 97 per cent in Mauritius. -—
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The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated labour force inequalities in many countries -—
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—-. Because women make up the majority of health, social service and unpaid care workers, they are also highly susceptible to varying effects of the pandemic. In the tourism sectorTourism sector is the cluster of production units in different industries that provide consumption goods and services demanded by visitors. Such industries are called tourism industries because visitor acquisition represents such a significant share of their supply that in the absence of visitors, the production of these would cease to exist in meaningful quantities -—
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—-., for example, many jobs were lost.

Information on time spent on unpaid domestic and care work is scarce for SIDS. Data are only available for Fiji (data for 2016) and Mauritius (2013), in which women spent 15 and 19 per cent of a 24-hour day in such activities. High share of time spent on unpaid domestic work can prevent women from entering the paid labour market and increase the risk of poverty.

Women are less often in positions of power

Women continue to be underrepresented in positions of power also in SIDS. However, globally, the top-3 countries measured by the share of firms with female participation in ownership are SIDS, namely Federated States of Micronesia, Samoa, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, where 87, 80 and 76 per cent of firms have female owners, respectively. Most SIDS exceed the world average (with their 48 per cent regional average) and are also clearly above LDCLeast developed countries (LDCs) are low-income countries confronting severe structural impediments to sustainable development. They are highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks and have low levels of human assets -—
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—-. levels, except for Antigua and Barbuda and Mauritius. It should be noted, however, that some of these statistics date back to 2009, and the situation is likely to have evolved.

Figure 4. Female participation in firm ownership, latest year

(Percentage of firms)

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Note: Data for World and LDCsLeast developed countries (LDCs) are low-income countries confronting severe structural impediments to sustainable development. They are highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks and have low levels of human assets -—
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—-. refer to 2019; 2015 for Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands; 2010 for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Bahamas, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Dominica, Jamaica, Saint Lucia and Antigua and Barbuda; and 2009 for Federated States of Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu, Fiji, Cabo Verde and Mauritius.

Several SIDS belong to the top-ranking countries globally with the SIDS' regional average share of women in managerial positions at 38 per cent. Women managers make up over 50 per cent of the total in Jamaica (56.7) and the Bahamas (51.6), while many other SIDS are also almost gender equal, such as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (49.5), Barbados (48.6), Dominica (48.4), Seychelles (46.8) and Saint Lucia (46.1). The share of female managers has also increased in SIDS in the recent years. But variation is large: seven SIDS remain below a 30 per cent share of female managers.

Figure 5. Women in managerial positions (SDGSustainable Development Goals (SDG) 5.5.2), latest year

(Percentage)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data refer to 2017 for Jamaica, Seychelles, Cabo Verde, Samoa and Mauritius; 2016 for Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji and Maldives; 2013 for Timor-Leste; 2012 for Sao Tome and Principe; 2011 for the Bahamas; 2010 for Kiribati; 2009 for Vanuatu; 2006 for Saint Lucia; 2004 for the Comoros; 2003 for Tonga; 2002 for Tuvalu; 2001 for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Dominica; and 2000 for Palau. The dashed line illustrates gender equal distribution, i.e., 50/50 division between women and men.

The public sector is a significant employer in many SIDS, and in some larger than the private sector. In a report for the G20Group of Twenty (G20) countries, the -—
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—- notes that the public sector seems to provide more management opportunities for women overall. While the above indicator assesses women in total managerial posts, it is also important to review women’s participation in senior or top manager positions.

In SIDS, the majority of top managers, i.e., the highest ranking manager or CEO, are men. The share of firms with a female top manager exceeds 30 per cent in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (39 per cent) and the Bahamas (33 per cent). About every fourth firm is headed by a woman in Timor-Leste, Barbados and Jamaica. Other SIDS with available data on this indicator are above the world average, other than Antigua and Barbuda, and Cabo Verde.

Figure 6. Firms with female or male top manager, latest year

(Percentage of firms)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data for World and LDCs refer to 2019; 2015 data for Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands; 2010 data for Antigua and Barbuda, Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Jamaica, Barbados, Bahamas, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; and 2009 data for Cabo Verde.

Gender equality in SIDS’ parliaments yet to be achieved

According to -—
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—- SIDS have not yet achieved an even representation of women and men in their national parliaments by January 2021, although Grenada is close, with a 47 per cent female representation in parliament. Over one third of parliamentary representatives were women in Timor-Leste (39 per cent) and Dominica (34 per cent), followed closely by Jamaica at 29 per cent. There were two SIDS without any women in parliament: Vanuatu and the Federated States of Micronesia. The Pacific islands region has the lowest level of women’s political representation in the world -—
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By January 2020, Seychelles had nearly achieved gender equality in ministerial positions with a 46 per cent share of women. Grenada reached 42 per cent, and Sao Tome and Principe, Trinidad and Tobago and Dominica one third. Based on the available data, there were no female ministers in Kiribati, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. -—
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Figure 7. Women in national parliaments and ministerial positions

(Percentage)

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Note: Data on the share of women in national parliament refer to January 2021, and the share of women in ministerial positions to January 2020.

SIDS' regional average share of women in national parliaments and ministerial positions is around 17 per cent for both indicators. Currently, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago have women in the highest position of the state, as head of government and as head of state, respectively. Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago have women presiding over parliament. Women’s participation in high political positions can be important to enact legal and institutional reforms to enhance gender equality. -—
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Adolescent pregnancy and early marriages in SIDS

Adolescent pregnancy and early marriage are important problems that affect gender equality. Women having children at an early age may experience a curtailment of their opportunities for socio-economic improvement, particularly because young mothers are less likely to keep on studying or may find it difficult to combine family and work at a young age -—
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Globally, 42 out of every 1 000 women aged from 15 to 19 years gave birth in 2018. In SIDS, the average adolescent birth rateAdolescent birth rate measures the annual number of births to women aged 15-19 years per 1 000 women in that age group. The rate provides a basic measure of reproductive health focusing on a vulnerable group of adolescent women. -—
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—- was just below the global average at 41, whereas for LDCs the average was 93. Sao Tome and Principe was the only SIDS that has a rate of teenage births as high as the LDCs’ average.

In 2018, the rate was also high in Solomon Islands, Cabo Verde, Comoros and Seychelles, ranging from 61 to 78 per 1 000 women aged from 15 to 19. Adolescent births may put young women at risk of dropping out of school, increase health problems and future difficulties in accessing the labour force. The last ten years have shown a decreasing trend in the adolescent birth rate.

Figure 8. Adolescent birth rate (SDG 3.7.2), 2018

(Number of births per 1 000 women aged 15-19)

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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The practice of marriage before the age of 18 is slowly declining. The risk of child marriage is 2.5 times higher for the poorest quintile of the global population, and girls who live in rural areas have a higher risk of becoming a child bride -—
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—-. Marriage before finishing school not only affects education outcomes, but also limits young women’s options to informal and low skilled jobs. Among SIDS, Sao Tome and Principe and the Comoros have the highest shares of women married by the age of 18, according to the latest data, 35 and 32 per cent, respectively. The share is above 20 per cent in five other SIDS. The lowest share is found in Maldives, at 2.2 per cent.

Gender-based violence persists in social and cultural structures

SDG target 5.2 aims to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls. Gender-based violence is still present globally, affecting not only the health and private life of women and families, but also their wellbeing and work life. Some of the statistics on violence against women are not up to date and only cover 19 SIDS.

Gender-based violence is a significant constraint for the achievement of gender equality in small island economies. In ten SIDS, the percentage of women and girls subjected to violence exceeds 20 per cent. These are all Pacific SIDS, except for Sao Tome and Principe in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean region. The level of violence against women is especially high in Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Kiribati, Timor-Leste and Fiji, ranging from 30 to 44 per cent.