Gender, inclusion and equality

In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities -—
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. In 2020, progress in gender equality has also been offset by the COVID-19 pandemic which has posed threats to the health, safety and livelihoods of women and men and has exacerbated disparities rooted in societal structures.

Gender inequality can manifest itself in many ways. Composite indicators can bring together several aspects of inequality. GII , for instance, looks at educational achievement, economic and political participation and reproductive health. The higher the value, the more there are disparities between women and men. According to -—
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gender inequality leads to loss of human development.

In 2019, GII ranked eleven SIDS better than the world average (see figure 1). In total, 12 SIDS, representing all SIDS for which GII is available, are above LDCs’ average. Almost all SIDS that have data for several reference years have seen a reduction in gender inequalities recently.

Figure 1. Gender inequality in SIDS, 2019 Figure 1. Gender inequality in SIDS, 2019
(GII index)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: The GII ranges from 0, where women and men fare equally, to 1, reflecting maximum inequality between women and men in all dimensions.

Towards greater equality in the eyes of the law

The Women, Business and the Law Index studies the impact of laws and regulations on women’s economic opportunities -—
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. In 2019, 12 SIDS exceeded the global average score of 75.2. The top-3 countries – Mauritius, Sao Tome and Principe, and Cabo Verde – are all located in the Indian and Atlantic Ocean. Sao Tome and Principe was also among ten economies globally that improved the most from 2017. This is thanks to the adoption of a new labour code brought into compliance with international standards, prohibiting, for instance, the dismissal of pregnant women.

Since 2000, all SIDS for which the index exists have improved the legal environment for women’s economic empowerment. Between 2017 and 2019, Fiji, for instance, introduced parenthood reforms, accepting paid leave for fathers for the first time and increasing maternity leave from 84 to 98 days. Grenada made changes to allow women to apply for a passport without additional documentation, i.e., on the same basis as men. Timor-Leste started counting periods of absence due to childcare towards pension entitlements, and Barbados enacted legislation to improve protection against sexual harassment.

Figure 2. SIDS ranked by the Women, Business and the Law Index, 2019 Figure 2. SIDS ranked by the Women, Business and the Law Index, 2019
(Index)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Inequalities persist in the labour markets

Women are more likely to be unemployed than men in SIDS, with average unemployment of 11 per cent compared to 8 per cent for men. Women’s labour force participation is also significantly lower in SIDS, on average 53 per cent, compared to 72 per cent for men. This is clearly illustrated in figure 3. The gap between male and female labour force participation is largest in Maldives, Fiji, and Sao Tome and Principe, and for unemployment rates in Marshall Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, and Tuvalu.

Figure 3. Labour force participation and unemployment rates by sex Figure 3. Labour force participation and unemployment rates by sex
(Percentage)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Latest annual data on labour force participation and unemployment rates for each country. For more details on the reference years, please refer to Income, poverty and employment, figures 1 and 2.

Average hourly earnings statistics are available for some SIDS only. In Timor-Leste (data for 2013), Tonga (2018) and Maldives (2016) women were paid about 80 per cent of men’s hourly earnings. In Mauritius, women’s earnings were 88 per cent of men’s earnings in 2019. -—
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The gender wage gap varies significantly by occupation and country. For instance, in Cabo Verde (data for 2015) and Samoa (2017), female professionals earned about 60 per cent of their male colleagues’ earnings. Women’s hourly earnings exceeded men’s earnings in clerical and support jobs in Maldives, Timor-Leste and Tonga, but women earned less than men in these occupations in Mauritius (94 per cent) and Samoa (80 per cent). Female managers’ compared to male managers' earnings ranged from 40 per cent in Tonga and Maldives to 97 per cent in Mauritius. -—
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studied women producers of Kiribati and their participation in domestic and international trade. The study notes that women’s economic activities, though mainly small-scale, play an important role in sustaining livelihoods for both urban and rural households despite women being discriminated by social norms and traditions. The smallness and remoteness from other countries and among the Kiribati islands makes the conditions for domestic and international trade very challenging.

The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated labour force inequalities in many countries -—
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. Because women make up the majority of health, social service and unpaid care workers, they are also highly susceptible to varying effects of the pandemic. In the tourism sector, for example, many jobs were lost.

Information on time spent on unpaid domestic and care work is scarce for SIDS. Data are only available for Fiji (data for 2016) and Mauritius (2013), in which women spent 15 and 19 per cent of a 24-hour day in such activities. High share of time spent on unpaid domestic work can prevent women from entering the paid labour market and increase the risk of poverty.

Women are less often in positions of power

Women continue to be underrepresented in positions of power also in SIDS. However, globally, the top-3 countries measured by the share of firms with female participation in ownership are SIDS, namely Federated States of Micronesia, Samoa, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, where 87, 80 and 76 per cent of firms have female owners, respectively. Most SIDS exceed the world average (with their 48 per cent regional average) and are also clearly above LDC levels, except for Antigua and Barbuda and Mauritius. It should be noted, however, that some of these statistics date back to 2009, and the situation is likely to have evolved.

Figure 4. Female participation in firm ownership, latest year Figure 4. Female participation in firm ownership, latest year
(Percentage of firms)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data for World and LDCs refer to 2019; 2015 for Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands; 2010 for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Bahamas, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Dominica, Jamaica, Saint Lucia and Antigua and Barbuda; and 2009 for Federated States of Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu, Fiji, Cabo Verde and Mauritius.

Several SIDS belong to the top-ranking countries globally with the SIDS' regional average share of women in managerial positions at 38 per cent. Women managers make up over 50 per cent of the total in Jamaica (56.7) and the Bahamas (51.6), while many other SIDS are also almost gender equal, such as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (49.5), Barbados (48.6), Dominica (48.4), Seychelles (46.8) and Saint Lucia (46.1). The share of female managers has also increased in SIDS in the recent years. But variation is large: seven SIDS remain below a 30 per cent share of female managers.

Figure 5. Women in managerial positions (SDG 5.5.2), latest year Figure 5. Women in managerial positions (SDG 5.5.2), latest year
(Percentage)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data refer to 2017 for Jamaica, Seychelles, Cabo Verde, Samoa and Mauritius; 2016 for Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji and Maldives; 2013 for Timor-Leste; 2012 for Sao Tome and Principe; 2011 for the Bahamas; 2010 for Kiribati; 2009 for Vanuatu; 2006 for Saint Lucia; 2004 for the Comoros; 2003 for Tonga; 2002 for Tuvalu; 2001 for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Dominica; and 2000 for Palau. The dashed line illustrates gender equal distribution, i.e., 50/50 division between women and men.

The public sector is a significant employer in many SIDS, and in some larger than the private sector. In a report for the G20 countries, the -—
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notes that the public sector seems to provide more management opportunities for women overall. While the above indicator assesses women in total managerial posts, it is also important to review women’s participation in senior or top manager positions.

In SIDS, the majority of top managers, i.e., the highest ranking manager or CEO, are men. The share of firms with a female top manager exceeds 30 per cent in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (39 per cent) and the Bahamas (33 per cent). About every fourth firm is headed by a woman in Timor-Leste, Barbados and Jamaica. Other SIDS with available data on this indicator are above the world average, other than Antigua and Barbuda, and Cabo Verde.

Figure 6. Firms with female or male top manager, latest year Figure 6. Firms with female or male top manager, latest year
(Percentage of firms)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data for World and LDCs refer to 2019; 2015 data for Timor-Leste and the Solomon Islands; 2010 data for Antigua and Barbuda, Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Jamaica, Barbados, Bahamas, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; and 2009 data for Cabo Verde.

Gender equality in SIDS’ parliaments yet to be achieved

According to -—
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SIDS have not yet achieved an even representation of women and men in their national parliaments by January 2021, although Grenada is close, with a 47 per cent female representation in parliament. Over one third of parliamentary representatives were women in Timor-Leste (39 per cent) and Dominica (34 per cent), followed closely by Jamaica at 29 per cent. There were two SIDS without any women in parliament: Vanuatu and the Federated States of Micronesia. The Pacific islands region has the lowest level of women’s political representation in the world -—
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By January 2020, Seychelles had nearly achieved gender equality in ministerial positions with a 46 per cent share of women. Grenada reached 42 per cent, and Sao Tome and Principe, Trinidad and Tobago and Dominica one third. Based on the available data, there were no female ministers in Kiribati, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. -—
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Figure 7. Women in national parliaments and ministerial positions Figure 7. Women in national parliaments and ministerial positions
(Percentage)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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Note: Data on the share of women in national parliament refer to January 2021, and the share of women in ministerial positions to January 2020.

SIDS' regional average share of women in national parliaments and ministerial positions is around 17 per cent for both indicators. Currently, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago have women in the highest position of the state, as head of government and as head of state, respectively. Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago have women presiding over parliament. Women’s participation in high political positions can be important to enact legal and institutional reforms to enhance gender equality. -—
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Adolescent pregnancy and early marriages in SIDS

Adolescent pregnancy and early marriage are important problems that affect gender equality. Women having children at an early age may experience a curtailment of their opportunities for socio-economic improvement, particularly because young mothers are less likely to keep on studying or may find it difficult to combine family and work at a young age -—
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Globally, 42 out of every 1 000 women aged from 15 to 19 years gave birth in 2018. In SIDS, the average adolescent birth rate was just below the global average at 41, whereas for LDCs the average was 93. Sao Tome and Principe was the only SIDS that has a rate of teenage births as high as the LDCs’ average.

In 2018, the rate was also high in Solomon Islands, Cabo Verde, Comoros and Seychelles, ranging from 61 to 78 per 1 000 women aged from 15 to 19. Adolescent births may put young women at risk of dropping out of school, increase health problems and future difficulties in accessing the labour force. The last ten years have shown a decreasing trend in the adolescent birth rate.

Figure 8. Adolescent birth rate (SDG 3.7.2), 2018 Figure 8. Adolescent birth rate (SDG 3.7.2), 2018
(Number of births per 1 000 women aged 15-19)
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on -—
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The practice of marriage before the age of 18 is slowly declining. The risk of child marriage is 2.5 times higher for the poorest quintile of the global population, and girls who live in rural areas have a higher risk of becoming a child bride -—
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. Marriage before finishing school not only affects education outcomes, but also limits young women’s options to informal and low skilled jobs. Among SIDS, Sao Tome and Principe and the Comoros have the highest shares of women married by the age of 18, according to the latest data, 35 and 32 per cent, respectively. The share is above 20 per cent in five other SIDS. The lowest share is found in Maldives, at 2.2 per cent.

Table 1. Women first married by age 18 (SDG 5.3.1)
(Share of women aged 20–24 years)
CountryPercentageYear
Sao Tome and Principe35.42014
Comoros31.62012
Barbados29.22012
Saint Lucia24.02012
Vanuatu21.42013
Solomon Islands21.32015
Kiribati20.32009
Timor-Leste15.02016
Samoa11.02014
Trinidad and Tobago11.02011
Jamaica7.92011
Tonga6.02012
Maldives2.22017
Source: -—
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Note: Data from the Demographic and Health Survey for Comoros, Kiribati, Maldives, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga and Vanuatu. Data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey for Barbados, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Sao Tome and Principe and Trinidad and Tobago.

Gender-based violence persists in social and cultural structures

SDG target 5.2 aims to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls. Gender-based violence is still present globally, affecting not only the health and private life of women and families, but also their wellbeing and work life. Some of the statistics on violence against women are not up to date and only cover 19 SIDS.

Table 2. Women subjected to physical or sexual violence in the previous 12 months (SDG 5.2.1)
(Percentage of women and girls aged 15 and above)
CountryPercentageYear
Vanuatu44.02009
Solomon Islands41.82008
Kiribati36.12008
Timor-Leste34.62016
Fiji29.72011
Sao Tome and Principe26.32009
Micronesia, Federated States of26.02014
Tuvalu25.02007
Samoa22.02000
Marshall Islands20.12014
Tonga18.92009
Palau9.62013
Jamaica8.52016
Cabo Verde7.82005
Trinidad and Tobago6.72017
Maldives6.42006
Comoros4.92012
Source: -—
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Gender-based violence is a significant constraint for the achievement of gender equality in small island economies. In ten SIDS, the percentage of women and girls subjected to violence exceeds 20 per cent. These are all Pacific SIDS, except for Sao Tome and Principe in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean region. The level of violence against women is especially high in Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Kiribati, Timor-Leste and Fiji, ranging from 30 to 44 per cent.

References
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